Ruby

The name Ruby is derived from the Latin word ruber which means “Red”, ruber was used to describe all vibrant red gemstones. The ancient Romans also used the word carbunculus which means “little coal” to describe all red gemstones, including Rubies, Red Spinels and Red Garnets. During the Middle-Ages the name ruber evolved into the old French word rubeus and then by the late Middle-Ages, it evolved into the English word Ruby. Up until around the early 1800s, the name Ruby was still being used to describe all vibrant red gemstones. After which time advances in gemmology allowed for the scientific distinction between red gemstones.
Ruby is composed of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) with the trace element chromium. It is chromium that gives Ruby its intense red colour. This gemstone belongs to the corundum mineral group along with Sapphire. Corundum forms in virtually every colour and all colours in this mineral group are classified as Sapphire except red, which is classified as Ruby. The most valuable and desirable colour of Ruby is called “Pigeon’s Blood”, which is pure red with a hint of blue. Since Ruby can contain trace amounts of other elements along with chromium, such as iron and titanium. It can form in a variety of shades of red. Outlined below are the classifications of the various shades of red.

Traditional Trade Names

• Pigeon’s Blood: This is the most valuable shade, it is formed as a result of a high chromium but low iron content. It is a vibrant pure red with a hint of blue.
• Royal Red: This shade is darker than pigeon’s blood and is formed as a result of slightly higher iron content. It is a deep, rich crimson colour.

Laboratory Classifications

• Vivid Red: This grade is for exceptionally clean stones, that have a vibrant red colour but do not have the hint of blue required to classify them as pigeon’s blood.
• Purplish Red: This grade is for darker stones, which have a noticeable violet undertone.
• Orangish Red: This grade is for vibrant and fiery stones, which have an orangish undertone. This grade is generally considered less valuable than pure red stones.
• Dark Red: This grade is for darker red stones, which border on a burgundy colour and can even have a slightly brownish red colour.
• Pinkish Red: This grade is for a lighter and softer shade of red, which is borderline on becoming pink. If the shade becomes too light, then the stone will no longer be classified as a Ruby but rather it will become a Sapphire.

Ruby Grading

Ruby is graded using a combination of the 4 Cs, which are colour, clarity, cut and carat. Also included in the assessment is the stone’s origin and treatment, if it has received any. During the assessment of each stone, the colour is the most important factor and will represent about 50% of the stone’s market value.

Retail Grading Scale

• AAA: This triple A grade is for exceptionally vivid red stones, typically pigeon’s blood. The stone must also have eye-clean clarity and have received no treatment.
• AA: This AA grade is for fine quality rubies, which have excellent red saturation and only contain minor inclusions.
• A: This grade is for good quality rubies, which have a medium red colour and visible secondary hues such as orange, etc. This grade will also include moderate inclusions.
• B: This B grade is classed as commercial grade. It will contain a visible brownish tint and will be heavily included.

Formation

The formation of Ruby requires very specific conditions of extreme heat and pressure, along with very specific elements which need to come together. These requirements are incredibly rare to come together in nature. Ruby is composed of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) which is corundum and on its own it is colourless. To become a Ruby it needs trace amounts of chromium. During formation, a very small amount (typically 1%) of the aluminium atoms are replaced by chromium ions. The chromium ions absorb green and violet wavelengths of light and reflects back only red light. This gemstone forms deep within the Earth’s crust and requires the host rock to be rich in aluminium, while at the same time it must contain no silica. Silica (silicon dioxide) is a very common chemical compound and if it is present, even in tiny amounts the aluminium will bond with it and quartz will form. There are two main geological processes in which Ruby forms: metamorphic and igneous.

• Metamorphic Process: During this process, tectonic activity will crush sedimentary rock such as limestone. This produces extreme heat and pressure which transforms the limestone into marble. During this process, the aluminium within the host rock recrystallises into corundum and can grow slowly under high pressure as the host rock cools down slowly. This metamorphic process can also allow for the inclusion of rutile needles (titanium dioxide). Rutile needles can either create a soft sheen called silk or when they perfectly align along the hexagonal crystal axes a star Ruby will be formed. Since the marble host rock is naturally very low in iron, a pure red colour will form, such as pigeon’s blood. Rubies from Myanmar (Burma) are formed by this metamorphic process.
• Igneous Process: This process involves Ruby crystals forming deep beneath the surface in cooling volcanic magma. The slower the magma cools, the larger the crystals that can form. This process typically does not allow for the inclusion of rutile needles, due to the rapid growth of the crystals. Volcanic Rubies also tend to have a darker and more metallic appearance than those which form in marble host rock. This darker appearance is due to the basalt rock having a higher iron content, which the Rubies will absorb. Rubies formed in this process are eventually brought to the surface through volcanic eruptions. Rubies from Thailand and Cambodia are formed through this igneous process.

While both processes produce Ruby, there is different characteristics of each. This can be seen by examining them in direct sunlight. The marble Ruby will have a “glowing coal” appearance, this is due to the stone’s high chromium content and very low, if any iron content. It will seem as if the stone has its own internal light. Volcanic Rubies will not have this and will appear more like coloured glass. This is because its higher iron content dampens the fluorescent reaction.
Marble Rubies will be vibrant, pure red with a slight blueish tint, this is due to the absence of iron. While volcanic Rubies will have visible brownish, orangish or garnet-like undertones due to their iron content.
After examining both in sunlight, you can then see a further difference between them by viewing them in the shade. The marble Ruby will continue to be vivid red because it is very efficient at scattering ambient light. While the volcanic Ruby will appear very dark or even black.

Currently, the finest quality Ruby is produced in Myanmar (Burma), other significant deposits are located in Mozambique, Vietnam, Madagascar, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

Treatments

Almost all Rubies on the market have been treated in one form or another. It has been estimated that between 95% to 98% of all Ruby has undergone treatment to improve their colour, clarity or durability. Treatments such as heat treatment are considered industry standard practice and it requires no special care afterwards. Although this and any other treatment is required to be disclosed to the buyer. A completely untreated, natural Ruby is extremely rare to find and as such will command a significant premium.

• Heat Treatment: This treatment involves heating the gemstone to between 1200°C and 1800°C. This will intensify the natural red colour by altering the iron and titanium atoms. It will also remove any unattractive rutile needles and so improve the stone’s clarity. This treatment is considered an industry standard practice and is permanent and stable, requiring no special care afterwards.
• Flux-Heated: This treatment involves the gemstone being coated in a flux such as borax and then heat-treated as outlined above. During the process the flux melts into the fissures in the gemstone. This will significantly improve the clarity of heavily included stones and will also make the stone structurally strong. It should be noted that this treatment will lower the value of the stone when compared to standard heat treatment.
• Lattice Diffusion: Lattice diffusion permanently alters the chemical composition and colour of the gemstone from the internal structure outwards. This treatment involves introducing beryllium while heating the stone to 1800°C and above. During the process, beryllium is forced deep within the atomic lattice of the gemstone. This will transform dark or brownish-red stones into bright orange-red or pink-red gemstones. It should be noted that this treatment is not commonly done. It also significantly lowers the market value of gemstones which have undergone this treatment.
• Lead-Glass Filling: This treatment involves the filling of heavily fractured stones with lead-glass. Lead-glass has a similar refractive index to Ruby and as such becomes virtually invisible to the naked eye. This treatment will significantly improve the stone’s clarity, making it clear and transparent in appearance. It should be noted however, that these glass-filled stones are fragile and as such ultrasonic cleaners should never be used. This treatment will also make the stone more susceptible to household chemicals. They can also be destroyed by a jeweller’s torch, during repairs or resizing.
• Oil/Resin Filling: For stones with surface-reaching inclusions, they can be filled with natural oils, a wax or synthetic resins such as an epoxy resin. While this treatment will improve the stone’s clarity, it is generally considered temporary. It should be noted that while this treatment is routinely applied to Emeralds, it is rarely applied to Rubies.

Durability

Ruby has a hardness rating of 9 on the Mohs scale, which is an excellent rating and second only to Diamond in hardness. It has no cleavage, meaning that it does not have a plane of weakness within its structure. This makes it highly resistant to chipping or fracturing from impacts. This makes Ruby one of the most durable gemstones and perfect for everyday wear, as such it is a very popular choice for engagement rings. However, it should be noted that if the stone contains surface-reaching inclusions or if it has been glass-filled, then its structural strength will be significantly reduced.

• Sunlight: Ruby is sunlight stable and will not fade in colour even if exposed to prolonged and intense sunlight.
• Heat: This gemstone is not sensitive to heat and is unaffected by rapid changes in temperature.
• Chemicals: This gemstone is not sensitive to household chemicals or cleaning agents.
• Cleaning: The cleaning of this gemstone is quite straightforward due to its high durability. Place your Ruby jewellery in a bowl of warm, soapy water and allow it to soak for 10 to 20 minutes to loosen any dirt. Then clean using a soft toothbrush gently in order to avoid catching the bristles of the toothbrush in the jewellery settings, which can dislodge the gemstones. When finished, rinse your jewellery thoroughly under warm running water. Ensure the plug is placed in the sink while you rinse, to prevent small items being accidentally flushed down the drain. The use of ultrasonic and steamer cleaners is safe for untreated or standard heat treated Rubies. However, these machines are never to be used on glass-filled Rubies.
• Storage: While this gemstone has excellent resistance to scratches, it can scratch softer gemstones such as Emerald, Opal or Pearl and metals such as Gold. For this reason, it is always recommended to store it in a separate compartment within your jewellery box or to place it in a soft cloth pouch.

Meaning and Healing Properties

Historically known as the “King of Gems”, Ruby has long been associated with passion, courage and protection. Due to its red colour, it is strongly associated with blood, passion and vitality. It symbolises enduring love and romance. The stone also symbolises power, fearlessness and leadership. It was widely used historically as a powerful talisman to ward off evil and to attract prosperity. The stone has been credited with a number of physical healing properties. It is said to be particularly useful for ailments of the blood. It is believed to stimulate blood flow and regulate blood pressure, as well as detoxifying the blood and boosting stamina. The stone has also been credited with a number of mental healing properties, including sharpening the mind, improving the wearer’s mood and boosting self-confidence.

Chakra: Ruby is primarily associated with the root chakra (muladhara), which helps to promote stability, security and grounding. Ruby is also associated with the heart chakra (anahata), which helps to promote love, compassion and emotional healing.

Birthstone: Ruby is the official modern birthstone for July, symbolising summer warmth, energy and good luck. Some older birthstone charts list Turquoise, Onyx and Carnelian as July’s birthstones.

Zodiac Astrology: Ruby is primarily associated with the star sign Cancer. It is also associated with Leo, Aries, and Scorpio.

Wedding Anniversary: Ruby is the traditional gift for the 40th wedding anniversary, symbolising undying love, strength and endurance.

History

The earliest known mining of Ruby took place in the Mogok Stone Tract Valley of Upper Burma (Myanmar) around 2,500 BC. Archaeologists have discovered both stone-age and bronze-age tools in the ancient alluvial gravels there. Proving that these deposits were once worked by stone-age people. Ancient mining methods here were small-scale artisanal mining, where the alluvial deposits in the rivers were worked by panning or shallow pit mining in the nearby fields. As early as 200 BC, Rubies from the Mogok Valley were being traded via the Silk Road into China and the Middle East. During the Shan Era from around the 6th century AD to the 16th century, mining intensified and expanded across the area. Local tradition has it that the town of Mogok was established when hunters discovered Rubies after a landslide. In 1597, the King of Burma annexed the Mogok Valley from the Shan Rulers by forcing a territorial exchange. The King then immediately implemented strict royal control over mining in the area. All gemstones found over a certain size or weight automatically became the property of the crown and had to be surrendered to the royal treasury. Failure to do so was considered a serious crime and was punishable by death. This new royal decree then led miners to intentionally break large gemstones they found into smaller pieces, which they could sell themselves. Legend has it that a miner named Nga Mauk found a huge, flawless Ruby which he then broke in half. He gave one half to the King and sold the other half to a Chinese merchant. Later on the King was said to have found this out by purchasing the other half from the Chinese merchant and then realised that they fitted together. The King then ordered that the miner and his family be burned to death. However, when the soldiers went to carry out the order, they could not find the miner’s wife, so they burned the miner and his children. The wife was said to have seen this taking place from a nearby hill and was so overcome with grief that she died on the spot. That hill still bears her name “Daw Nan Kyi” to this day.
In 1885, the British colonised Burma, mainly in order to control the Mogok Valley and its immense wealth. In 1889, the British government leased the mining rights of the Mogok Valley to a London-based consortium led by Edwin Streeter (a jeweller) and N.M Rothschild (a banker). This consortium formed and traded as The Burma Ruby Mines Ltd. This mining company ramped up extraction in the Mogok Valley to an industrial scale. The company even moved the town of Mogok so that they could mine beneath it. The company held the mining lease and continued mining in the area until the early 1930s. Although officially the Burma Ruby Mines Company went into liquidation in 1925. The decline was a combination of severe flooding in the mines and the rise of cheap synthetic gemstones. After the collapse of the mining company, mining in the region reverted back to local artisanal mining. In 1963, after Burma’s independence, the new government nationalised all mining activity. Today, mining still continues in the Valley.
After the Burmese mines were nationalised, the supply of Ruby to the global market was severely restricted. To address this issue the gem trade turned to the Trat province of Thailand and the Pailin region of Cambodia. The massive and continuous deposit in these two regions held huge amounts of Ruby. However, the ruby from here was rich in iron, giving it a dark, almost garnet-like appearance. The solution to this iron content came in 1968, when a massive fire in Chanthaburi reveal low-grade stones were transformed by the heat. The process was then refined and these dark, brownish stones were heat-treated to produce fine-quality Rubies. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Thai-Cambodian border produced over 80% of the worlds Ruby. By the 1990s the mines in both Thailand and Cambodia were largely considered depleted.
Today the finest Ruby is produced in Myanmar (Burma), Mozambique and Madagascar. There are also some deposits in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Cambodia.

Synthetic Rubies

In 1837, Marc Antoine Gaudin, a French Chemist produced the very first synthetic Ruby. He produced it by fusing alumina and chromium together at extreme temperatures. While this was successful in the fact it was the very first synthetic gemstone ever produced, they were opaque and as such unsuitable for jewellery.
In 1885, a batch of so called “natural Rubies” appeared on the market in Geneva. These were high-clarity and of excellent quality however, jewellers did notice that they contained no natural inclusions. Decades later, lab analysis of these “Geneva Rubies” found that they were in fact flame fusion synthetic Rubies. The producer of these gemstones has never been identified and it remains a mystery to this day.
In 1902, Auguste Verneuil, a French Chemist perfected the flame fusion method, a process which he had been working on since 1886. This process was commercially viable and he used it to mass-produce huge quantities of synthetic Rubies. By 1907, Verneuil’s flame fusion method was being used by laboratories to produce an estimated 5 million carats per year. This of course fundamentally altered the gemstone market.

Identification

To identify a synthetic Ruby, it needs to be examined under a microscope. Natural Ruby will have flat growth lines within the crystal, whereas synthetic stones will have curved growth lines. A synthetic stone may also contain tiny gas bubbles, which a natural stone will not have. If you do not have a microscope, these checks can be attempted using a jeweller’s loupe, which may give you an indication of whether further investigation is required.

Price Difference

Synthetic Rubies are mass-produced in laboratories and typically cost about 1% to 5% of the value of a natural Ruby. To give an example, a 1 carat synthetic Ruby produced using the standard flame fusion method (Verneuil’s method) typically costs between $10 to $50. While a fine quality, eye-clean natural 1 carat Ruby, which has been standard heat-treated, would typically cost between $1,500 to $5,000. A Burmese pigeon’s blood 1 carat, again which has been standard heat-treated, would typically cost $5,000 to $12,000.
It should also be noted that in a lab, it costs pretty much the same to produce a 5 carat gemstone as it does to produce a 1 carat. However, in nature, the rarity of finding a 5 carat versus a 1 carat is reflected in the considerable price difference.

Value Retention

There is also the issue of value retention, which should be considered if you are thinking of purchasing a synthetic Ruby. A synthetic stone will virtually have zero resale value, beyond the value of the precious metal setting in which it is set. On the other hand, a natural Ruby will not only hold its value but will act as an investment.

Folklore

Ruby has a rich folklore surrounding it, dating back thousands of years. Ancient people not only saw it as a beautiful gemstone but that it was a living talisman which contained a powerful life force.
In Hindu mythology, Ruby had the highest spiritual status of all the gemstones and it was believed to represent the sun. They believed that by offering a high-quality Ruby (Brahmin) to the god Krishna, that they would be rewarded by being reincarnated in their next life as an Emperor. It was said that the stone’s internal glow could not be extinguished and that it was an eternal flame contained within it. Legend has it that if the stone was placed in water, then its spiritual heat would make the water boil. In India, Rubies were divided into four castes, similar to their social caste system. Rubies of different castes were not allowed to come into contact with each other. In the belief that an inferior stone would diminish the power of a superior stone. A person wearing a flawless Ruby was said to be completely safe under its protection.
Legend has it that Rubies were first discovered in Burma’s Mogok Valley by hunters. The story goes that after hunters shot a crow, they found a Ruby in its claw. They then searched the area and found more lying on the ground. In ancient Burma, Ruby was associated with war and bodily protection. Burmese warriors believed that the stone could grant absolute invincibility in battle. They would actually cut open their skin and insert the stone and then allow the cut to heal over. In the belief that the stone would interact with their blood and so protect them from all harm.
In the Old Testament, the first gemstone on the high priests breastplate is odem which is Hebrew for “red stone”. Older translations of this gemstone said this to be Sardius or Carnelian. However, modern scholars have noted that it signified a fiery red stone and so have translated it as Ruby. This first stone on the high priests breastplate represents the tribe of Reuben.
In ancient Egypt, Ruby was associated with Ra, the sun god and was said to hold a life force within it. It was believed that by wearing the stone so that it touched the wearer’s skin, this life force could be absorbed and physically energise the person. It was also said to guarantee the wearer health, love and joy. Since Ruby appears to have an inner-glow or fire, it was believed that this fire was the trapped essence of the sun god Ra. This inner light was said to have the ability to pierce the darkness in the underworld. As such it was frequently buried with the pharaohs to guide them in the afterlife.

Greek Mythology: The ancient Greeks called Ruby Anthrax which means “live coal” or “burning charcoal”. It should be noted that Anthrax was a term used to describe all vibrant red gemstones. The Greeks believed that Anthrax held an eternal inner flame that could not be put out. Greek scholars wrote about Anthrax, claiming that if placed in water it could make it boil and that produced a red light similar to a lamp if placed in a darkened room. In Greek mythology, Anthrax was associated with Ares, god of war. It was said that by wearing the stone, Ares strength, courage and aggression could be absorbed. Greek soldiers wore the stone in their armour and in the hilts of their swords in the belief that they could call upon the favour of Ares. A Greek legend had it that particularly large rubies were in fact the eyes of dragons and could only be obtained by slaying a dragon and gouging out its eyes. The Greeks also believed that the stone was a powerful talisman and they used it to ward off evil spirits and sorcery. It was also said to protect the wearer from terrors of the night.
Ruby was viewed as a status symbol and worn by both men and women to show their immense wealth and status. The gemstone was frequently engraved with family crests or images of the gods and worn as signet rings. These signet rings then doubled as official stamps for sealing documents. Greek physicians credited the gemstone with a number of healing abilities. They would grind it into a fine powder and mix it with wine or water. Then use it to treat ailments of the blood, stomach ailments and as an antidote to poison.

Roman Mythology: The ancient Romans called Ruby Carbunculus which is the Latin word for “little coal” or “glowing coal”. It should be noted that this term Carbunculus was used to describe all vibrant red gemstones, which included Red Garnets and Red Spinels etc. In Roman mythology, Carbunculus was most closely associated with Mars, the god of war. Roman soldiers would wear the stone in the belief that it could harden their flesh, prevent blood loss and that it would make them invincible on the battlefield. Victorious Emperors and military leaders would frequently make offerings of Carbunculus to Mars and Jupiter in thanks for a successful military campaign. The stone was also associated with Vulcan, the god of fire. The Romans believed that the stone contained an eternal flame within it, that could not be extinguished. They classified Carbunculus as being either male or female. The bright and vibrant stones were said to be male and the duller or paler stones were said to be female. It was said that the female stones were more prone to losing their lustre if they were in a damp or shaded area. The Romans widely believed that the stone was prophetic and that it could forewarn the wearer of impending misfortune, illness or betrayal. If danger was imminent, then the gemstone would change colour or turn dark, then when the danger had passed, it would return to its original vibrant state. Like the Greeks, the Romans saw Ruby as a status symbol and it was worn by the elite in society to showcase their immense wealth and power. It was also frequently carved and set in signet rings, to be used as official stamps to seal government documents.
Roman physicians credited Carbunculus with a number of healing properties. The stone was said to protect the wearer from infectious diseases and atmospheric poisons. The Romans believed that the inner fire with Carbunculus was fueled by love and compassion. As such it was widely used as an empathy amulet. It was said that if two friends had a falling out, then a gift of a Ruby or even holding a Ruby would reconcile both friends. This led the stone to be known as the “Stone of Peace and Reconciliation”. Interestingly, this belief in the stone’s power of reconciliation, despite its connection to war, was a widely held belief across both Western and Eastern cultures. A fascinating example of cultural parallelism.

Medieval Europe: During the Middle-Ages in Europe, lapidaries detailed the physical properties of gemstones as well as their occult uses. The belief that Ruby was a prophetic stone still persisted from Roman times. The stone was said to change colour or darken should danger be approaching and so warn the wearer. After the danger had passed, the stone would return to its normal state. There was a widely held belief at this time that carrying a Ruby would guarantee victory in battle. Medieval lapidaries also detailed that this not only applied to the battlefield but also to the courtroom. Sorcerers believed that Ruby was a powerful and essential source of protection from evil spirits. They would use the stone to protect themselves from being violently attacked by the very demons which they were summoning. The famous traveller Sir John Mandeville wrote in 1365 about a widespread belief, that if a man took a Ruby and touched the four corners of his land, his house, orchards and vineyards with it. That he would be permanently protected from lightning, heavy tempests and poor harvests. Medieval lapidaries have also documented a number of healing properties of Ruby. It was ground into a fine powder and used to treat hemorrhages and to reduce fever. The stone could be steeped in a liquid and then the liquid was drank to calm anger and to provide reconciliation between arguing parties. The lapidaries have also documented Ruby’s use in lithotherapy. Where the stone was worn in an open-back ring, to allow the stone to touch the skin. This practice was believed to protect the wearer from infectious diseases such as the black death.
A belief from Roman times, which still persisted during the middle-ages was that gemstones could be enchanted and so increase their normal virtues. This could be done by performing a ritual while the gemstone was being carved with a specific image. Different precious gemstones were assigned specific images and symbols. A list of these images and symbols is detailed in the “Book of Wings” by Ragiel, a 13th century grimoire. In the case of Ruby, it details the following:
“The beautiful and terrible figure of a dragon. If this is found on a Ruby or any other stone of similar nature and virtue, it has the power to augment the goods of this world and makes the wearer joyous and healthy.”
The Roman Catholic Church associated Ruby with odem which was the first gemstone on the high priest’s breastplate in the Old Testament. It represented Reuben, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. Later on in the Book of Revelation, the twelve foundation stones of the New Jerusalem were matched to the twelve Apostles. With Ruby being matched to St. Bartholomew the Apostle. This made Ruby a symbol of perpetual divine authority and a physical reminder of the Sacrificial Blood of Christ. It was also believed to embody the Blood of the Christian Martyrs, who died for their faith in Christ, of whom St. Bartholomew was one. The Catholic Church directly linked Ruby to Divine Love, the Holy Spirit and the Sacrifice of Christ. In the 12th century, Bishop Marbode of Rennes wrote about the virtues of Ruby. He stated that Ruby possessed God-Given power to restrain sinful lust, calm anger and banish evil thoughts. Wearing the stone was believed to keep a person’s mind pure and focused on heavenly matters. While Sapphires were commonly used for Bishop’s episcopal rings. Rubies were reserved for high-ranking prelates and were used to represent their vow to defend the Church, even to the point of Martyrdom. The Catholic Church also widely used Rubies in Monstrances, Reliquaries and other religious objects.
In more recent times, Ruby was also believed to bring success in business. Rosser Reeves was a TV advertiser in the 1950`s, who carried a 138.72 ct Ruby around with him. He was most famous for his M&M slogan “melts in your mouth, not in your hand”. He called the stone “my baby” and claimed it was the source of his good luck. Rosser donated the stone to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C in 1965.

Famous Rubies

For Researchers and Journalists

Recommended Citation (MLA) Format:

Hoyne, John. “Ruby: Formation, History, Meaning, and Folklore.” Carus Jewellery, n.d., https://carusjewellery.com/ruby/.

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