Sapphire

The name Sapphire is derived from the ancient Greek word Sappheiros and the Latin word Sapphirus, both of which mean “Blue Stone”. The Greek word Sappheiros (originally used to describe Lapis Lazuli) and the Latin word Sapphirus were generic words used to describe all blue gemstones. The origin of the Greek word Sappheiros can be traced even further back to the ancient Hebrew word Sappir meaning “Noble Stone” or “The Most Beautiful Thing”. Sapphire is composed of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) with trace elements and it belongs to the corundum mineral group. The other gemstone in the corundum group is Ruby. Within the corundum mineral group, all colours are classified as being Sapphires except red, which is classified as Ruby. Sapphire forms in virtually every colour and its colour is determined by the trace elements which it contains.

Sapphire Colour Varieties

• Blue: Blue is formed by the presence of iron and titanium. Higher iron content will result in a darker blue colour. A pure cornflower blue is considered the most desirable colour.
• Yellow: Yellow is formed by the presence of iron on its own.
• Green: Green is formed by the presence of iron and sometimes with trace amounts of cobalt or vanadium.
• Pink: Pink is formed by the presence of trace amounts of chromium. It should be noted that if the amount of chromium is increased, then Ruby will form.
• Orange: Orange is formed by the presence of chromium and iron.
• Purple/Violet: Purple or violet is formed by the presence of vanadium. Purple/violet can also form from a blend of chromium, iron and titanium.
• Pink/Orange: This specific colour is called Padparadscha (Sinhalese for “Lotus Flower”) and is formed by the presence of chromium and iron. It is the rarest and most expensive variety of Sapphire.
• White/Colourless: White or colourless is formed by the absence of any trace element and as such is pure aluminium oxide.
• Colour Changing: This variety can change colour between daylight and incandescent light. This ability is the result of an exact blend of chromium, iron and titanium.

Formation

Sapphires form deep within the earth’s crust, typically 6 to 18 miles beneath the surface, requiring intense heat and pressure over millions of years. They also require an environment that is rich in aluminium but very low in silicon. Silicon is a very common element and if it is present, then it will bind to aluminium and quartz will form. Sapphire forms through two main geological processes, metamorphic and igneous.

Metamorphic Process: During this process, tectonic activity will crush sedimentary rock such as shale or limestone. Under intense heat and pressure the aluminium within the rock recrystallises into corundum. This metamorphic process allows slow growth of the crystal under high pressure, while cooling down slowly. Inclusions of rutile needles (titanium dioxide) are possible in this process. Rutile needles create a soft, velvety texture to the gemstone. When rutile needles align perfectly along the hexagonal crystal axes a star Sapphire will be created. Sapphires from Kashmir and Sri Lanka are formed from this process.

Igneous Process: This process involves Sapphire crystals forming deep beneath the surface in cooling volcanic magma. The slower the magma cools, the larger the crystals that can form. Gemstones formed in this process rarely have inclusions of rutile silk and as such will have excellent clarity with a “glassier” appearance. Also because of their rapid growth during this process, volcanic Sapphires can sometimes feature colour zoning (bands of colour). Sapphires from Australia typically form from this process.

Currently, the main Sapphire producing countries are Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Australia, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, China, Tanzania, Kenya, and the United States.

Treatments

It has been estimated that about 90% to 95% of all Sapphires on the market have been treated in one form or another to improve their colour, clarity and or appearance. Natural high quality Sapphires are extremely rare and as such will always command a significant premium over the treated ones. Natural Sapphires are normally sold with a cert from a gemological lab, stating that they have not undergone any treatment. There is a legal requirement to disclose if treatment has been applied.

• Heat Treatment: This is the most commonly used treatment and it involves heating the stones in a kiln to between 400°C to 1800°C. This treatment will darken pale blue stones and will remove any purple or green overtones. This heat will also remove any unattractive rutile inclusions and improve the stone’s clarity. This treatment is permanent and stable.
• Lattice Diffusion: This treatment involves introducing chemical elements while heating the stones. Titanium can be forced into pale coloured stones, which will create a vibrant blue surface layer on the gemstone. It should be noted that this is only a surface layer and it can wear off or it can be polished off. Beryllium can also be used and since its atoms are smaller, it will penetrate deeper into the stone. Beryllium can transform dull stones into a vibrant yellow or orange colour.
• Fracture Filling: This treatment is used on stones which have surface-reaching inclusions. The process involves filling these fissures with lead glass or cobalt-infused glass. Since glass has a similar refractive index to Sapphire, the fissures virtually become invisible to the naked eye. It should be noted however that these glass-filled stones are fragile and as such ultrasonic cleaners should never be used. They can also be destroyed by a jeweller’s torch, during repairs or resizing.
• Irradiation: This treatment involves exposing stones to radiation. It is typically used on pale, colourless or light green stones and it will transform them into a vibrant yellow or orange colour. It should be noted that this treatment is unstable and the vibrant colour tends to fade when exposed to sunlight or gentle heat.
• Dyeing: This treatment is typically used on poor-quality stones which are fractured and or opaque. The dye is forced into the stone through the fissures to give the stone a blue colour. This treatment is not permanent and the dye can easily be removed from the stone with cleaning solvents.

Durability

Sapphire has a hardness rating of 9 on the Mohs scale, which is an excellent rating and second only to Diamond. It has no cleavage, meaning that it does not have a plane of weakness within its structure. This makes it highly resistant to chipping or fracturing from impacts. This makes Sapphire one of the most durable gemstones and perfect for everyday wear.

• Sunlight: Sapphire is sunlight stable and will not fade in colour even if exposed to prolonged and intense sunlight.
• Heat: This gemstone is not sensitive to heat and is unaffected by rapid changes in temperature.
• Chemicals: This gemstone is not sensitive to household chemicals or cleaning agents.
• Cleaning: The cleaning of this gemstone is quite straightforward due to its high durability. Place your Sapphire jewellery in a bowl of warm, soapy water and allow it to soak for 10 to 20 minutes to loosen any dirt. Then clean using a soft toothbrush gently in order to avoid catching the bristles of the toothbrush in the jewellery settings, which can dislodge the gemstones. When finished, rinse your jewellery thoroughly under warm running water. Ensure the plug is placed in the sink while you rinse, to prevent small items been accidentally flushed down the drain. The use of ultrasonic and steamer cleaners is safe for untreated or standard heat treated Sapphires. However, these machines are never to be used on glass-filled or dyed Sapphires.
• Storage: While this gemstone has excellent resistance to scratches, it can scratch softer gemstones such as Emerald, Opal or Pearl and metals such as Gold. For this reason, it is always recommended to store it in a separate compartment within your jewellery box or to place it in a soft cloth pouch.

Meaning and Healing Properties

Throughout time, Sapphire has symbolised royalty, wisdom and fidelity. Royalty and nobility have worn Sapphires since antiquity, believing that it showed divine approval and that it would protect them from harm. The stone was often referred to as the “Stone of Wisdom” and was said to bring mental clarity and focus and so help with decision-making. It also traditionally symbolised fidelity and sincerity, which of course made it a very popular gemstone for engagement rings. The stone was also credited with a number of healing properties. It was said to have the ability to reduce inflammation and fevers, it was also said to protect the eyes and improve vision.

Chakra: Since Sapphire comes in almost every colour, it is associated with all seven major chakras. Association with each chakra is primarily based on colour.

• Black is associated with the root chakra, which helps to promote stability, security and grounding.
• Orange is associated with the sacral chakra, which helps to promote creativity.
• Yellow is associated with the solar plexus chakra, which helps to promote confidence and personal empowerment.
• Pink/Green is associated with the heart chakra, which helps to promote love, compassion and emotional healing.
• Blue is associated with the throat chakra, which helps to promote communication and self-expression.
• Violet/Purple is associated with the third eye chakra, which helps to promote mental clarity.
• Colourless is associated with the crown chakra, which helps to promote spiritual connection.

Birthstone: Sapphire is the traditional birthstone for September. Lapis Lazuli is an Alternative birthstone for September.

Zodiac Astrology: Sapphire is associated with the star signs Virgo, Taurus, Capricorn and Aquarius.

Wedding Anniversary: Sapphire is the traditional gift for the 45th wedding anniversary, symbolising enduring strength, love and fidelity. It can also be used as an alternative gemstone gift for the 5th and 65th wedding anniversary.

History

The earliest known mining of Sapphire dates back to around 500BC in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is a unique island with astounding natural deposits of Sapphire and other gemstones. The main deposits of Sapphire are located in the Southwestern valley of Ratnapura. The stone was mined from alluvial gravels in riverbeds and beneath floodplains, which are secondary deposits (placer deposits), after the gemstone was washed down from the mountains over millions of years. Mining was artisanal and controlled by the Sinhala monarchy. The monarchy organised all mining operations, including who could mine and where. They also held legal ownership of all high-quality gemstones found, which had to be surrendered to the royal treasury. Failure to do so was considered a serious crime against the monarchy. They also oversaw the trade in gemstones. Arab traders would purchase Sapphires, along with other gemstones and export them across the Middle East and into Europe. The Persian traders called the island Serendip meaning “fortunate discoveries”. Sri Lanka is a very old island with most of the rock there being Precambrian. Which produces a seemingly never-ending supply of the finest gemstones. Marco Polo wrote in 1292 “I want you to understand that the island for its size, is the finest island in the world and from its streams comes Rubies, Sapphires, Topazes, Amethysts, and Garnets“. In 77 AD, the Roman Scholar Pliny the Elder wrote about the Island of Sri Lanka, which he called Taprobane and commented on the exceptional clarity of the gemstones from there. In 1796, the British colonised the island and anglicised its name calling it Ceylon. During British rule, mining intensified to meet global demand. The term “Ceylon Sapphire” was used to distinguish Sapphires from the island and to describe the exceptional brilliance and blue colour of these stones. Today mining still continues in Sri Lanka, making it the oldest source of continuous mining of Sapphire in the world, spanning over 2,500 years. Despite modern innovations in mining methods, artisanal mining is still used and is now mandated by the government for environmental reasons.
Burma, now called Myanmar, was also an important historical source of Sapphire. Mining there dates back over a 1,000 years, with deposits mainly located in the Mogok Stone Tract, located in Upper Myanmar. The Mogok Stone Tract is most famous for producing “Pigeon-Blood” Rubies. However, since both Sapphire and Ruby belong to the corundum mineral group they are often found alongside each other. Similar to Sri Lanka, the Burmese monarchy controlled the mining of all gemstones and gems found of a certain size or value had to be surrendered to the royal treasury. Again similar to Sri Lanka, the British colonised Burma in 1885. In 1889, the British granted a mining lease to Edwin Streeter (a jeweller) who was part of a syndicate from London known as the Burma Ruby Mines LTD to mine in the Mogok Stone Tract. This led to industrial mining in the area. The mining company even moved the town of Mogok so that they could mine beneath it. The company held the mining lease until the early 1930s, by which time it had become unprofitable to continue mining due to the great depression and the rise of synthetic gemstones. From the early 1930s to 1962, the deposits were worked by local artisanal miners. After which the Burmese government nationalised all gemstone mining. Today mining still continues in the Mogok tract, with industrial mining in the mountains and artisanal panning in the rivers.
In 1881, Sapphire was discovered in Kashmir in India after a landslide in the Zaskar Mountains. The Sapphire found here was of exceptional quality and is generally considered to be the finest ever found. They contained microscopic rutile inclusions, which gave them a soft glow and a velvety lustre. They also had a deep, saturated cornflower blue colour, making them highly sought after. Mining of the primary deposit was short-lived and by 1887 it was considered largely depleted. There are still occasional finds made by locals but there is no official mining in the area. Kashmir Sapphires which do come to the market, normally through auctions are exceptionally valuable due to their rarity.
In 1851, gold miners in New South Wales Australia, discovered Sapphire in the Cudgegong and Macquarie rivers. Later on in the 1870s further discoveries were made in Central Queensland. By the 1890s, mining in Central Queensland was established and much of the early Sapphire mined here was exported to Germany and then on to Russia. The deposits in Central Queensland were truly massive however, only a small portion of which was of gemstone quality, with the rest being industrial grade. During the 1980s, Australia produced about 90% of the global supply of Sapphire, currently Australia is producing about 20% to 30% of global supply. Interestingly in 1938, a 12 year old boy named Roy Spencer found a 1,156 carat Sapphire near Anakie in Queensland. The uncut gemstone was used as a door stop for 9 years before being identified. In 1947, the family sold the gemstone to Harry Kazanjian, an Armenian jeweller for $18,000. Kazanjian cut and polished the stone to reveal a 733 carat cabochon, valued at around $100 million today. The Black Star of Queensland as it is known, is currently in a private collection.
In 1865, a gold miner named Ed Collins discovered gemstone quality Sapphire in the Missouri River in Montana. At first these pretty pale pebbles were thought of as nuisance, since they clogged the miner’s sluice boxes. However, their true value was recognised when George Frederick Kunz from Tiffany & Co. praised their quality. Later on in 1895, Jake Hoover discovered little blue pebbles while mining for gold at Yogo Gulch in the Little Belt Mountains. These Sapphires were of exceptional clarity and of the most desirable vivid cornflower blue colour. Known as Yogo Sapphires, these are of such high quality as to not require heat treatment. Today mining still continues in Montana.

Synthetic Sapphires

The very first synthetic sapphires were created in 1873 by a collaboration between Edmond Fremy and Auguste Verneuil. They used a flux growth method and while it was a success, the gemstones they produced were small and not commercially viable for the jewellery market. Verneuil later went on to invent the flame fusion process in 1902, which was later called the Verneuil process. This process was commercially viable and was used to produce large quantities of Sapphires. Verneuil perfected the colouration of these synthetic Sapphires between 1909 to 1911 by adding iron and titanium to the process.
In 1947, the Linde Air Products Company modified the Verneuil process and successfully created the first synthetic Star Sapphire.

Identification

To identify a synthetic Sapphire, it needs to be examined under a microscope. Natural Sapphire will have flat growth lines within the crystal, whereas synthetic stones will have curved growth lines. A synthetic stone may also contain tiny gas bubbles, which a natural stone will not have. If you do not have a microscope, these checks can be attempted using a jeweller’s loupe, which may give you an indication of whether further investigation is required.

Price Difference

Synthetic Sapphires are mass-produced in laboratories and there is a notable difference in price between natural and synthetic. There is also a notable difference in price between the sizes of synthetic and natural stones. In a lab, to grow a 5 carat synthetic gemstone costs pretty much the same as to grow a 1 carat gemstone. However, in nature due to the rarity of finding a 5 carat versus a 1 carat gemstone, the price difference is considerable. A 5 carat natural stone would typically cost 5 to 8 times more than a 1 carat. To give an example of synthetic versus natural, a 1 carat synthetic gemstone (flame fusion method) can be purchased for as little as $5. Whereas a 1 carat natural blue Sapphire which has been heat-treated, would cost between $1,500 to $5,500.

Value Retention

There is also the issue of value retention, which should be considered if you are considering purchasing a synthetic Sapphire. A synthetic stone will virtually have zero resale value, beyond the value of the precious metal setting in which it is set. On the other hand, a natural Sapphire will not only hold its value but will act as an investment.

Folklore

There is a rich folklore surrounding Sapphire going back to ancient times. It was seen as a living talisman and that it held the power to connect people with the heavens and the divine. The ancient Persians believed that the Earth sat upon a pedestal made of Sapphire and the blue of the sky was in fact a reflection of this giant Sapphire. This led them to call the stone “Eye of the Sky”. As such this gemstone was a direct link between Earth and Heaven. The stone represented stability, divine order and spiritual enlightenment. It was said that if a person dreamed of a Sapphire, it was a direct message from the divine and that the person was about to receive success and wisdom. They also believed that the stone was a powerful talisman and that it held the power to protect them from treachery, envy and evil. The stone was said to also have the ability to neutralise poison if the person held the stone or if they consumed it as a fine powder. The Persians credited the stone with a number of medicinal properties. They would grind it into a fine powder and consume it for all manner of ailments.

In the Bible Sapphire has been mentioned a number of times ( 12 times approximately), where it symbolises God’s divine authority, his holiness, his glory and divine law. At the sealing of the covenant at Mount Sinai, Moses, Aaron and the Elders saw a vision of God and under his feet was as if it were a pavement of Sapphire stone. The prophet Ezekiel had a vision of God and his throne of judgement and sovereignty: “and above the firmament over their heads there was the likeness of a throne, in appearance like Sapphire; and seated above the likeness of a throne was a likeness as if were of a human form”. The high priest’s breastplate, which Moses made under the instructions of God, contained a Sapphire on the second row. This stone was traditionally associated with the tribe of Issachar or the tribe of Dan. In ancient Jewish oral tradition, the tablets of stone on which was written the 10 commandments are said to have been made from Sapphire. However, the Bible does not explicitly state that the tablets were made of Sapphire.

The Ancient Egyptians associated the gemstone with the all-seeing Eye of Horus. They believed the stone had healing properties, especially for eye infections. They would crush the gemstone and make an eye wash from it. Cleopatra was said to have made an eyeliner from the stone. Although there is some doubt about exactly which gemstone the Egyptians were referring to, it is possible they were referring to Lapis Lazuli.

Greek Mythology: The ancient Greeks used the word sappheiro to describe what we know as Lapis Lazuli. The philosopher Theophrastus does describe a stone fitting the description of a Sapphire, however he called it Hyanthos (Jacinth). The ancient Greeks did have Sapphire as we know it today but under various names. In Greek mythology, Sapphire is primarily associated with Apollo, god of prophecy, light and music. They believed it was the stone of the god Apollo and associated it with the Oracle of Delphi. Wealthy Greeks would wear Sapphire when visiting the Oracle of Delphi in the belief that the stone would help to open their “third Eye” and as such the Oracle could prophesize their future or a particular event. Greek legend held it that Helen of Troy possessed a large Sapphire which was claimed to be the source of her beauty and charm. The ancient Greeks also believed that wearing the stone would protect them from envy, physical harm and that it was an antidote to poison. They would also use the stone as a peace talisman. It was frequently worn by generals and diplomats when entering into treaties or marching into new territories. In the belief that the stone could prevent betrayal. They also credited the stone with a number of medicinal properties. They would grind it into a fine powder and use it to treat various skin ailments. It was also said to have a calming effect on the mind and that it could focus the intellect.

Roman Mythology: The ancient Romans used the word sapphirus (derived from the Greek word sappheiros) to describe blue stones. In Roman mythology, Sapphire was associated with Jupiter, king of gods and ruler of the sky, light and thunder. The stone was seen as a reflection of his heavenly domain. The colour blue in ancient Roman society symbolised moral purity and people would wear the stone to protect their virtue or chastity. It was also seen as a powerful source of protection against the evil eye, something ancient people took very seriously and lived in dread of. The Roman nobility and high-ranking individuals frequently wore Sapphire signet rings which symbolised their honesty, truthfulness and clear judgement. Like the Greeks, the Romans also believed that the stone could be used as an antidote to poison. Roman physicians would grind the stone into a fine powder and mix it with milk to treat ailments of the eyes and to improve vision.

Medieval Europe: During the middle-ages in Europe, Sapphire was seen as a symbol of heavenly purity and a talisman for royal protection. Both royalty and the nobility wore the stone to protect themselves from envy, treason and physical harm. They also used the stone as a diplomatic talisman. They believed that the stone could calm anger and that it could persuade an enemy to agree to a peace treaty.
Physicians at this time continued in the older belief that this stone could be used to cure ailments of the eyes. They also believed that because this gemstone is dense and normally cold to the touch, it held the power to reduce fevers. During the black death, wealthy individuals wore heavy gold bands set with Sapphires in the belief that it would cool and balance the body’s internal systems. Physicians also credited the stone with the ability to calm the mind and they would recommend wearing the stone to people suffering from hysteria or mental illness in general. The older belief in the stone’s ability to neutralise poison was still widely accepted during this time. It was said that the stone would start to sweat in the presence of poison as it was absorbing the toxin. Medieval physicians developed the belief that by wearing a Sapphire ring on different fingers, they could treat different parts of the body. They believed that different veins flowed from different fingers to specific internal organs. The index finger was linked to the stomach, liver and gallbladder. The ring finger was linked to the heart and lungs. The middle finger was linked to the brain and spleen. The thumb was linked to the lower abdomen. So by placing the ring on the appropriate finger they tried to cure a wide variety of ailments.
A belief from Roman times, which still persisted during the middle-ages was that gemstones could be enchanted and so increase their normal virtures. This could be done by performing a ritual while the gemstone was being carved with a specific image. Different precious gemstones were assigned specific images and symbols. A list of these images and symbols is detailed in the “Book of Wings” by Ragiel, a 13th century grimoire. In the case of Sapphire, it details the following:
“The figure of a ram or of a bearded man, on a Sapphire, has the power to cure and preserve from many infirmities as well as to free from poison and all demons. This is a royal image; it confers dignities and honours and exalts the wearer.”
In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church saw the physical properties of Sapphire as a direct reflection of divine reality and the structure of heaven. The stone’s blue colour was associated with the Virgin Mary, symbolising her purity, chastity, her heavenly love and her assent to the divine will. The Church then took Sapphire, which symbolised purity, sanctity and celibacy, making it the Bishop’s ring. In 1205, Pope Innocent III decreed that all Bishop’s rings were to be made of gold with an unengraved Sapphire. An engraved sapphire as mentioned earlier, would have been formed through a pagan ritual. The Church recognised Sapphire as a powerful source of protection against demonic attacks and that the stone could guard the wearer from temptation and help to promote pious thoughts.

Famous Sapphires

For Researchers and Journalists

Recommended Citation (MLA) Format:

Hoyne, John. “Sapphire: Formation, History, Meaning, and Folklore.” Carus Jewellery, n.d., https://carusjewellery.com/sapphire/.

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