Turquoise

The name Turquoise is derived from the French word “Pierre Turquoise”, which translates to Turkish stone. Venetian and French merchants would normally purchase this gemstone in Turkish bazaars and then resell it in Europe. At the time, most people in Europe incorrectly assumed that the gemstone originated in Turkey and so named it the “Turkish stone” (Pierre Turquoise). The gemstone actually originated from the Sinai Peninsula and was traded along the Silk Road. Which passed through the Ottoman Empire (present-day Turkey) and as such it would have been available in Turkish bazaars.
Turquoise is a copper-containing basic aluminium phosphate. It is the copper which is contained within the gemstone that is responsible for the blue colouration. If the amount of copper within the gemstone is the dominant metal, the resulting colour will be a vivid sky blue called “Robin’s Egg Blue”. This colouration is the most desirable and as such is the most expensive. If there is iron present within the mineral’s structure, then the colouration will move towards green. If there is zinc present within the mineral’s structure, then the colouration will move towards yellowish-green. Although the presence of zinc is quite rare.

Classification of Turquoise

Turquoise is typically interspersed with other minerals and or the host rock. As such it is primarily classified by its mine of origin, its matrix pattern and its quality grade.

Mine of Origin

• Lander Blue (Nevada): Considered the very finest quality, it was a small mine which produced a spiderweb matrix. This deposit has been depleted.
• Number Eight (Nevada): This mine produced a beautiful golden-brown spiderweb matrix. This deposit has been depleted.
• Bisbee Blue (Arizona): Famous for its vivid blue colour and brown or brownish-red or lavender matrix. This was a byproduct of copper mining and is no longer being produced.
• Persian (Nishapur, Iran): This mine is the world’s oldest Turquoise mine and has been in operation for the last 7,000 years. Historically and currently, it is considered the gold standard for Robin’s egg blue with no matrix. It currently produces about 40 tons per year.
• Lone Mountain (Nevada): A vivid blue matrix gemstone of high quality. Small amounts are still being produced at this mine.
• Sleeping Beauty (Arizona): This mine produced pure matrix-free Robin’s egg blue. The mine closed in 2012, which has led to a sharp increase in price.
• Kingman (Arizona): This mine produces a bright blue to green colour, frequently with a black or silver matrix. This mine continues operations and is considered one of the larger producers.

Matrix Pattern

• Matrix-free / Clear: This classification is for pure Turquoise that contains no host rock. Examples of this type can be seen in both the Sleeping Beauty and Persian varieties.
• Birdseye: Also called “Water Web”, this pattern appears as an aggregate of small Turquoise nuggets surrounded by darker matrix. Examples of this can be seen in Turquoise from Egypt, the Kingman mine and the Morenci mine.
• Spiderweb: This pattern appears as a web or network of thin veins of matrix. It is highly prized and as such is expensive. Examples of this can be seen in Lander Blue, Number Eight and Kingman.
• Boulder: Also called Ribbon, this pattern appears as a ribbon or river of Turquoise running through host rock. The large amount of host rock is intentionally left in place to create a feature of the vein-in-rock. Examples of this can be seen in Turquoise from the Royston mine and the Pilot Mountain mine.

Quality Grade

• Natural: This is stone that is mined, cut and polished with no treatments applied. It is estimated that only about 10% of Turquoise on the market is natural.
• Stabilised: This is where soft and porous specimens are pressure-treated with a resin to stabilise it so that it can be cut and polished. This also helps to stabilise the colour.
• Enhanced: This grade has undergone an electrochemical treatment, known as the Zachery method. This process will enhance the gemstone’s colour, improve its hardness and reduce its porosity.
• Reconstituted: This grade is a manufactured product, created by grinding Turquoise into a fine powder and then reforming it with a resin and a dye.

Formation: Turquoise is composed of a copper-containing basic aluminium phosphate. This is a secondary mineral, meaning that it is made of a combining of pre-existing minerals. One of the specific conditions required for its formation is evaporation. It is for this reason that it is primarily formed in arid or desert environments. The process begins with infrequent rainfall, which percolates down through the ground. As it trickles down, the water picks up copper, aluminium and phosphorus from the surrounding rocks. The water will then become a mineral-rich fluid which seeps into fissures or cavities in the host rock. Here it will accumulate and then evaporate, leaving the minerals behind which crystallise into Turquoise. Depending on the host rock, the gemstone will either form on its own as clear/matrix-free or it will become intergrown with the host rock and so produce matrix. High concentrations of copper will result in a sky blue colour. If iron is present, the result will be a green or greenish colour. If zinc is present, the result will be a yellowish-green colour. Turquoise that forms in wetter or deeper environments, typically do not have the required evaporation and so it will form softer and more porous. This is commonly referred to as “Chalk Turquoise”.

Treatment: It is estimated that only about 10% of Turquoise on the market is natural. As such the vast majority has been treated and it is considered a standard industry practice.

• Stabilisation: This treatment involves the stone being impregnated under pressure with a polymer or resin. This will harden soft and porous specimens to allow them to be cut and polished. It will also stabilise the colour. This is the most commonly applied treatment.
• Zachery Treatment: This treatment involves the stone being submerged in a chemical solution containing a high concentration of potassium. An electrical charge is then passed through this solution, which compacts the stone’s molecular structure. This will deepen the stone’s colour and make it denser, allowing it to be cut and polished to a higher degree.
• Oil/Wax: This treatment involves a surface coating of oil or wax being applied. This will improve the stone’s colour and appearance. It should be noted that this treatment is not permanent and will need to be reapplied from time to time.
• Dyeing: This treatment is typically applied at the same time as the stabilisation treatment. It is used to darken very pale specimens.
• Reconstitution: This treatment involves grinding very small pieces or left over fragments into a fine powder. Which is then mixed with a polymer or resin and reformed. The finished product is generally considered a manufactured plastic composite.
• Backing: This treatment involves glueing a synthetic backing to a particularly thin piece of Turquoise. This adds strength to the stone and so allows it to be placed in a setting, which otherwise would cause it to break.

Durability: Turquoise has a hardness rating of 5 to 6 on the Mohs scale. As such it is considered a relatively delicate gemstone and not suitable for everyday wear. Particularly in jewellery such as rings and bracelets, which are more exposed to wear and impacts. Jewellery which is more protected such as earrings and necklaces, could be worn more frequently. This gemstone is also a hydrous mineral, which means that it contains water and it can easily absorb liquids such as perfumes, skin oils and soapy water. These liquids can then react with the copper contained within the gemstone and change its colour, typically resulting in it  turning a dull yellowish-green. This gemstone has a toughness rating of fair to good, but it is prone to cracking upon impact.

• Sunlight: Turquoise is highly sensitive to sunlight. Prolonged exposure to UV rays will cause this gemstone to fade in colour and or to change colour to green. Sunlight can also cause dehydration that can result in cracking. When not in use, it is always recommended to store this gemstone in a cool, dark place.
• Heat: Turquoise is very sensitive to heat, which can cause it to dry out, resulting in discolouration and even cracking. A jeweller’s torch can easily destroy this gemstone, as such it should be removed from its setting before any repairs to your jewellery are made.
• Chemicals: Turquoise is very sensitive to chemicals. This gemstone can easily absorb liquids, which can lead to permanent discolouration. Even prolonged exposure to tap water, which contains chlorine and minerals, can damage this gemstone. In the case of perfumes, lotions and makeup, it is best to apply these first and then put on your jewellery last.
• Cleaning: Since Turquoise is so sensitive to chemicals, the safest and most recommended way to clean it is with a damp, lint-free soft cloth. Rub the gemstone gently with the damp cloth and dry it afterwards. Never use a steam cleaner or an ultrasonic cleaner on this gemstone.
• Storage: This gemstone is relatively soft, as such it can easily be scratched by other harder gemstones and or metal. It is recommended to keep it in a separate compartment within your jewellery box or to place it in a soft cloth pouch. It should be stored in a cool, dark place away from any sources of heat. This gemstone also contains water within its structure, as such it needs to breathe. So it is best to avoid using airtight containers. It should be noted that most safes are either airtight or almost airtight.

Meaning and Healing Properties

Throughout time, Turquoise has been regarded as a deeply spiritual and protective gemstone. It symbolises protection, good fortune and inner tranquility. It was worn as a talisman to protect the wearer from the “Evil Eye” and was commonly attached to the bridles of horses to protect both the horse and rider from falls. The stone was also said to have the ability to forewarn the wearer of approaching danger or ill health by changing colour. This gemstone was said to have a calming effect on the wearer and promote a sense of inner peace. Historically, Turquoise was believed to have powerful physical healing properties. It has been credited with the ability to reduce inflammation, improve respiratory ailments, purify the blood and boost the immune system. It was also used to treat ailments of the eyes.

Chakra: Turquoise is primarily associated with the throat chakra, which helps to promote communication and self-expression.

Birthstone: Turquoise is the traditional birthstone for December, along with Lapis Lazuli. Alternative (modern) birthstones for December also include Blue Zircon, Blue Topaz, and Tanzanite.

Zodiac Astrology: Turquoise is primarily associated with the star sign Sagittarius. It is also associated with the star signs Pisces, Aquarius, Scorpio, and Taurus.

Wedding Anniversary: Turquoise is the traditional gemstone gift for the 11th wedding anniversary. The traditional material for the 11th wedding anniversary is steel.

History

Turquoise gemstone has an incredibly long history, dating as far back as the Neolithic period. Making it one of the earliest gemstones to be mined and used by the stone-age people. Archaeologists have found the oldest known Turquoise beads at the site of Gilgal II in the Jordan Valley, which were dated to 10,800 – 9,500 BC. Ancient people not only used this gemstone in jewellery but also as a protective talisman that was often buried with the deceased. Interestingly, archaeologists have found evidence from around this time of “Imitation Turquoise”. Which would indicate that the stone was valuable enough to expend time and energy to create imitations.
The ancient Egyptians called Turquoise “Mefkat” which means “Joy” or “Delight”. They were the first people to mine this gemstone on an industrial scale. Mining primarily took place on the Sinai Peninsula, with Wadi Maghareh and Serabit el-Khadim being the most important locations. Mining was controlled by the pharaohs and was a vast operation involving thousands of workers. Mining at the Wadi Maghareh site peaked during the 4th dynasty, after which Serabit el-Khadim became the main focus of operations. At Serabit el-Khadim, there was a temple built to the goddess Hathor, to whom the Egyptians associated the gemstone and they would often refer to her as the “Mistress of Turquoise”. The Egyptians highly prized this gemstone and it was widely used in royal jewellery and works of art for the pharaohs. One of the most well-known examples of its use is in the burial mask of Tutankhamun. It was also used in Queen Zar’s bracelets from the first dynasty, which were buried with her. It was believed to ward off evil spirits and to offer protection to the deceased in the afterlife. The Egyptians also used this stone for decorative purposes. They would use it for cloisonne inlay and to decorate the hilts of their daggers. The stone was also used as a pigment, by grinding it into a fine powder and mixing it with oil. This was then used in paintings and in cosmetics such as eyeshadow.
Ancient Persia (present-day Iran) was and still is a significant producer of high-quality Turquoise. Neyshabur (Nishapur), located in the Northeast of Iran is the most famous mining region and has been continuously producing Turquoise for over 7,000 years. Historically, the city of Mashhad which is located near the Neyshabur mines, was a major trading centre for the gemstone. From here, the gemstone was exported across the ancient world. It was traded with China as early as the 13th century BC, where it was highly prized and used in both jewellery and in religious objects. It was also traded across Central Asia and into Rome via the Silk Road. It was even traded with Egypt, despite the fact that they had their own deposits. The Turquoise bracelet that was found on the mummified Queen Zar was identified as Persian. The Persians also used this gemstone, cut into tiles to decorate the domes of their mosques and palaces. Symbolising the heavens on earth. Mining continues in Iran to the present day and “Persian Grade” is considered the gold standard for pure matrix-free Turquoise, with its intense, uniform sky blue colour.
In Mesoamerica, both the Aztec and Mayan cultures considered this gemstone sacred and more valuable than gold. There were no deposits in Mesoamerica, so extensive trade routes known as “The Turquoise Road” were established. To bring the stone from present-day New Mexico and Arizona, which was a huge undertaking at the time. Aztec emperors wore crowns made of Turquoise and they used it to make mosaics. The Mayan people used it to make ear spools and as dental inlays, which involved drilling the person’s teeth and then inserting the gemstone.
In the Southwest of America, this stone held significant cultural importance for the Native American people. They believed it was a “living stone” which had fallen from the sky and as such was a connection between Earth and the sky. It was frequently used in their ceremonial rain dances. The Apache would attach it to their bows in the belief that it would ensure they hit their target. In 1859, silver was discovered in Nevada which was followed by further discoveries in Colorado and Arizona. Around 1860, a Navajo named Atsidi Sani who was a blacksmith, learned silversmithing and started producing Turquoise and silver jewellery. As the popularity of this jewellery grew, the Fred Harvey Company began selling Native American Turquoise and silver jewellery in the early 1900s. Which gave this iconic style global recognition.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, there was virtually no Turquoise being imported into Europe. During the 11th to 13th centuries, the gemstone started to reappear in Europe with returning crusaders. Although the stone still remained quite rare throughout the middle-ages. By the 17th century, trade routes were becoming reestablished and French and Venetian merchants were importing the stone from Turkish bazaars. These merchants referred to the stone as “Pierre Turquoise” which translates to “Turkish Stone”, despite the fact that the stone did not originate from Turkey, the name stuck. This new trade allowed the stone to become more widely available and it started to be used in aristocratic jewellery. It was also used at this time as a talisman, particularly a horseman’s talisman.
During the Victorian Era, Turquoise saw a huge increase in its popularity and this period is generally considered the “Golden-Age” of the stone. Queen Victoria herself was a great lover of the stone and she would frequently both wear it and give it as gifts. Which of course only fuelled interest in the gemstone. Victorian society was quite romantic and sentimental, as such they particularly liked floriography. Which is the “Language of Flowers” and it was used to express a coded message. For example, forget-me-not flowers conveyed “remembrance” and “faithful love”. In jewellery, Turquoise represented the blue petals of the forget-me-not flower. Turquoise was also used in acrostic jewellery to spell the letter “T”. A very popular word in acrostic jewellery was DEAREST and was spelt using Diamond, Emerald, Amethyst, Ruby, Emerald, Sapphire, Turquoise.

Folklore

In ancient Egypt, Turquoise was considered a sacred gemstone which they called “Mefkat” meaning “Joy” or “Delight”. They associated the stone with Hathor, goddess of love, beauty, fertility and joy. She was frequently referred to as the “Mistress of Turquoise”, since she was the protector of the Sinia desert, where the stone was mined. The stone was seen as a status symbol and a symbol of divine authority. As such it was reserved for royalty and high-ranking individuals. The stone was believed to have the power to ward off evil spirits and provide protection to the wearer from harm and disease. It was believed to protect the deceased in the afterlife and was often included with burial objects. One of the most famous examples of which is the burial mask of Tutankhamun.
In Persia, Turquoise was called “Pirouzeh” and later called “Firouzeh” meaning “Victory” or “Triumph”. It was considered the gemstone of kings and that it was a living stone. They believed that the stone could interact with the wearer and if the wearer fell into bad health, then the stone would turn pale or become dull. The stone would stay in this state until it was passed on to a new and healthy owner, when it would regain its vibrant blue colour. They believed the stone held powerful protection against the “Evil Eye” and they would wear it as an amulet. The Persians also had a very strongly held belief that Turquoise was a vital talisman for horsemen. They would attach the stone to the bridles of their horses to protect both horse and rider from injury from a fall. There was widespread reports that if a horse and or rider experienced a fall and were unharmed. Upon inspecting the gemstone afterwards, it would be frequently found to be cracked. This led the gemstone to be known as a “Sacrificial Stone”, since it would absorb the impact of a fall. Interestingly, almost identical beliefs and uses of this gemstone as a talisman for horsemen independently arose in the Native American people. A fascinating example of cultural parallelism.

Greek Mythology: The ancient Greeks called this gemstone “Callais” meaning “blue-green shimmering” or “beautiful stone”. Since this is a blue-green or teal coloured gemstone, in Greek mythology it was associated with sea deities (Poseidon and Amphitrite). The sea-green colour of this gemstone symbolised purity and so was popular with young women who wore it to symbolise their purity. The Greeks believed this gemstone was a powerful talisman that could protect them from the evil eye. The evil eye was said to be a curse cast either consciously or unconsciously by a malevolent glance. Ancient people took the evil eye very seriously and lived in dread of it. The ancient Greeks would give Turquoise beads to new born babies for protection. So strong was this belief that to the present-day the Greeks still continue to give gifts of Turquoise to new born babies for protection and luck.

Roman Mythology: In ancient Rome, Turquoise was rare and very expensive. As such it was only available to the very wealthy and high-ranking individuals, typically in the military. In Roman mythology, the stone was associated with Venus, goddess of love and beauty. As such it was often worn on fridays which were Venus’s day and it was believed to increase the wearer’s charm. They believed the stone had the power to interact with the wearer and it would lose its colour if the owner fell into bad health. It was also said to lose its colour if the wearer was in danger and so forewarn its owner. Similar to the Persians, the Romans believed that this gemstone was a powerful talisman for horsemen. Pliny the Elder describes the stone as being used to improve vision or to rest tired eyes by gazing upon the soothing blue stone.

Medieval Europe: During the middle-ages in Europe, the primary folklore surrounding this gemstone was its use as a talisman for horsemen. The belief that it could prevent injury to either the horse or rider in the event of a fall by absorbing the impact itself and so breaking, was so strong that it was commonly referred to as the “Horse Amulet”. The stone was also used as an indicator of the owner’s health. It was believed to lose its vibrant colour if the owner was about to fall ill. At this time, it was also used to detect poison, it was said to change colour or lose its colour in the presence of poison. Some people in the middle-ages believed that the stone would impart different virtues to men and women. To men, the stone was said to bring success and power. To women, the stone was said to bring joy and contentment. During this period, physicians credited the stone with a number of healing properties. They would use it to treat ailments of the stomach, internal bleeding, and to reduce inflammation.
In the Catholic Church, Turquoise was seen as a symbol of heavenly transcendence and was associated with the Virgin Mary. Blue is the traditional colour of the Blessed Virgin, symbolising her purity and divinity. Our Lady of Guadalupe, in 1531, Our Lady appeared to Saint Juan Diego, an indigenous Aztec man. She spoke to him in his native Nahuatl language and identified herself as the Mother of the True God. She requested that a Chapel be built on the spot where she appeared. To indicate that she was a Queen of the highest rank, she appeared wearing a Turquoise-coloured mantle. As miraculous proof, Our Lady instructed St. Juan Diego to gather roses which were out of season and bring them to the bishop. When St. Juan Diego opened his tilma (cloak) to show the roses to the bishop, there was a colourful image of the Blessed Virgin miraculously imprinted on the inside of his tilma. This tilma has survived intact for almost 500 years and is currently on display at the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico city.

Famous Turquoise Jewellery

For Researchers and Journalists

Recommended Citation (MLA) Format:

Hoyne, John. “Turquoise: Formation, History, Meaning, and Folklore.” Carus Jewellery, n.d., https://carusjewellery.com/turquoise/.

You can also get in touch with Carusjewellery.com on Facebook , where you may leave any comments or questions you may have about this article.